Table 1. Our suggestion is that one researcher is responsible for the analysis and others carefully follow-up on the whole analysis process and categorization. This is particularly important if the researcher decides to analyze the latent content (noticing silence, sighs, laughter, posture etc.) However, a disadvantage of purposive sampling is that it can be difficult for the reader to judge the trustworthiness of sampling if full details are not provided. However, the systematic use of quotations needs careful attention. However, there is a risk that quotations may be overused, thus weakening the analysis (Downe-Wamboldt, 1992; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004, Kyngäs et. The main question is then, “Would the findings of an inquiry be repeated if it were replicated with the same or similar participants in the same context (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Polit & Beck, 2012)?” According to Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) criteria for establishing credibility, researchers must ensure that those participating in research are identified and described accurately. Techniques for establishing transferability, Techniques for establishing dependability, Techniques for establishing confirmability. In 1994, the authors added a fifth criterion referred to as authenticity. In the next sections, we discuss trustworthiness issues associated with the reporting results, methods, and analysis process. Whittemore et al. The trustworthiness of content analysis results depends on the availability of rich, appropriate, and well-saturated data. Helvi Kyngäs is Professor in University of Oulu, Institute of Health Sciences. Very often, these aspects can be shown in the same figure, for example, a diagram that illustrates the hierarchy of concepts or categories may also give an insight into the analysis process (see, for example, Timlin, Riala, & Kyngäs, 2013). Therefore, data collection, analysis, and result reporting go hand in hand. 23 Despite this fact and the argument that member checking can be a key process in establishing the credibility of the collected data, there are some disputes about its use. Trustworthiness has grown to be a crucial concept as it enables investigators to explain the virtues of qualitative terms outside of the parameters which are generally used in quantitative research. evaluate qualitative research are those purported by Lincoln and Guba (1985). In qualitative research, rigour is synonymous with quality and is demonstrated by evidencing the trustworthiness of the research findings to others (LINCOLN & GUBA, 1985). What I did in ensuring Login failed. (2018). However, in previous scientific articles, the unit of analysis has often been inadequately described, making it difficult to evaluate how successful was the meaning unit used (Kyngäs et al., 2011). This article is part of the following special collection(s): From the text to coding: Intercoder reliability assessment in qualitative content analysis, Content analysis: Concepts, methods and applications, QUAGOL: A guide for qualitative data analysis, Content analysis: Method, applications and issues, A web of intrigue: The search for quality in qualitative research, The good, the bad and the relative, part two: Goodness and the criterion problem in qualitative research, Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness, Using content analysis as a research method to inquire into intellectual capital reporting, A multi-stage approach to the coding of data from open-ended questions, Content analysis methods for conducting research in social and administrative pharmacy, Three approaches to qualitative content analysis, Establishing rigour in qualitative research: The decision trail, Reconceptualizing rigour: The case for reflexivity, Sisällönanalyysi suomalaisessa hoitotieteellisessä tutkimuksessa, The use of content analysis in Finnish nursing science research, A standardized approach to qualitative content analysis of focus group discussions from different countries, Qualitative content analysis: A guide to paths not taken, Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research, Content analysis—A methodological primer for gender research, Rethinking validity and reliability in content analysis, Validation of qualitative research in the “real world.”, Validity in quantitative content analysis, Rigour in qualitative research: Mechanisms for control. This video describes Lincoln and Guba's trustworthiness framework related to qualitative research. It is common that all data are first collected and then analyzed later. According to Frey, (2018), They are Credibility, transferability, validity and reliability. Click here to return to Evaluative Criteria, © RWJF 2008 The procedures for fulfilling the trustworthiness Pre-interviews may help to determine whether the interview questions are suitable for obtaining rich data that answer the proposed research questions. al., 2011). Researchers have mainly used qualitative criteria when evaluating aspects of validity in content analysis (Kyngäs et al., 2011). Researchers have continued to adapt and refine the criteria to ensure the quality of the data and findings. It is important to consider the sampling method used in qualitative studies (Creswell, 2013). Final thoughts. Some studies have used member checks, whereby participants check the research findings to make sure that they are true to their experiences (Holloway & Wheeler, 2010; Koch, 1994; Saldaña, 2011; Thomas & Magilvy, 2011). As a research method, it represents a systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena (Downe-Wamboldt, 1992; Schreier, 2012). The trustworthiness of qualitative research is frequently interrogated by positivists, perhaps because their concepts of validity and reliability cannot be addressed in the same way in naturalistic study. This is referred in this article as “the Four However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. Dependability refers to the stability of data over time and under different conditions. addressing the issue. This is likewise one of the factors by obtaining the soft documents of this competing paradigms in qualitative research by online. To gather credible data, different sampling methods may be required in different studies. The researcher needs to determine which type of purposeful sampling would be best to use (Creswell, 2013), and a brief description of the sampling method should be provided. Rolfe G. Validity, trustworthiness and rigour: Wuality and the idea of qualitative research. According to Schreier (2012), there is no clear dividing line between qualitative and quantitative content analysis, and similar terms and criteria for reliability and validity are often used. Following a researcher-as internal and external validity, reliability, and objectivity. In response, scholars, such as Lincoln and Guba (1985), established new criteria to “judge” qualitative research. Tarja Pölkki, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor, senior researcher and lecturer in the Institute of Health Sciences, University of Oulu. Members of _ can log in with their society credentials below, Satu Elo, Maria Kääriäinen, Outi Kanste, Tarja Pölkki, Kati Utriainen, and Helvi Kyngäs, This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (. The extent to which researchers fairly + faithfully show a range of diff However, there are no published recommendations on how the trustworthiness should be checked if the inductive content analysis is conducted by two or more researcher. Naturalistic Inquiry. Using Virtual Reality to Validate the Chinese Version of the Independe... Workflow for Intensive Care Unit Nurses: A Time and Motion Study. The aim of the study described in this article was to describe trustworthiness based on the main qualitative content analysis phases, and to compile a checklist for evaluating trustworthiness of content analysis study. The information presented here raises important issues about the use and development of content analysis. From the perspective of validity, it is important to report how the results were created. Thoroughness as a criterion of validity refers to the adequacy of the data and also depends on sound sampling and saturation (Whittemore, Chase, & Mandle, 2001). Having audit trails means having a mechanism to track the source. How rigour is achieved, however, remains an elusive concept for many qualitative researchers. For example, when using a descriptive question such as “Could you please tell me, how do you take care of yourself?” the researcher has to consider the aim of data collection and try to extract data for that purpose. Lincoln and Guba posit that trustworthiness of a research study is important to evaluating its worth. Dependability refers to the stability of data over time and under different conditions. Guba’s constructs, in particular, have won considerable favour and form the focus of this paper. Trustworthiness Valid inquiry in any sphere must Demonstrate its truth value Provide the basis for applying it Allow for external judgments to be made about the consistence of its procedures and the neutrality of its findings or decisions. In addition, trustworthiness has often been difficult to evaluate because articles have mainly focused on reporting the analysis of quantitative rather than qualitative data obtained in the study. In this case, the researcher must continue the grouping to identify any similarities within and differences between categories. Although qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing science research, the trustworthiness of its use has not yet been systematically evaluated. All the researchers should subsequently get together and discuss any divergent opinions concerning the categorization, like in the pilot phase mentioned earlier. This may have led to improvements in the quality of reports on the process of content analysis. To develop trustworthiness in qualita-tive research, Lincoln and Guba (1985) initially presented four criteria: cred-ibility, dependability, confirmability, and However, conception may have different objectives. The following were used as inclusion criteria: methodological articles focused on qualitative content analysis in the area of health sciences published in English and with no restrictions on year. SAGE Publications Inc, unless otherwise noted. Manuscript content on this site is licensed under Creative Commons Licenses. Denzin and Lincoln, in qualitative research there is the aim to “transform the world.” This in itself has many nuances and varies among the different qualitative research strategies. Content analysis per se does not include a technique to connect concepts (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Harwood & Garry, 2003). The use of figures can be highly effective when reporting content analysis findings, especially when explaining the purpose and process of the analysis and structure of concepts. However, the present methodological article was written by several authors who have extensive experience in using the content analysis method. Lincoln and Guba posit that trustworthiness of a research study is important to evaluating its worth. Interview tapes, videos, and transcribed text should be examined carefully to critically assess the researcher’s own actions For instance, questions should be asked such as “Did I manipulate or lead the participant?” and “Did I ask too broad or structured questions?” Such evaluation should not only begin at the start of the study but also be supported by continuous reflection to ensure the trustworthiness of content analysis. This video describes Lincoln and Guba's trustworthiness framework related to qualitative research. In deductive content analysis, the organization phase involves categorization matrix development, whereby all the data are reviewed for content and coded for correspondence to or exemplification of the identified categories (Polit & Beck, 2012). Researchers often struggle with problems that compromise the trustworthiness of qualitative research findings (de Casterlé, Gastmans, Bryon, & Denier, 2012). We concluded that it is important to scrutinize the trustworthiness of every phase of the analysis process, including the preparation, organization, and reporting of results. in addition to manifest content (Catanzaro, 1988; Robson, 1993) as it may result in over interpretation (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). On page 218, they talk about trustworthiness. This is useful when using deductive content analysis, which is based on a categorization matrix or coding scheme. // -->. Princeton, NJ 08543, Citation: Cohen D, Crabtree B. Nearly 32 hours of interview data. 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